Why War?

War is endemic in human history

War, or collective violence, is endemic in human history, according to distinguished historian Richard Overy in his recent book Why War?. It is endemic both historically and today – and anthropologically meaning across all cultures. Indeed, human beings are the only species that kill each other in large numbers.

War was common in Ancient Greece, Ancient Rome and in the early Christian age. Christians were supposed to love peace and “love thy neighbor”. But they made a lot of war.

There is also lots of evidence of war in pre-historic times, the times of hunter gatherers, 20- to 30,000 years ago. The propositions of American cultural anthropologist, Margaret Mead, and others of a pacified past or a noble savage, or that war is a modern invention, do not stand up to scrutiny.

Some historians are inclined to see war as something associated with the formation of modern states that could build armies, and organise strategy and weapons. However much of the evidence of war in tribal societies suggests that the ambush or the early morning raid when an entire village was massacred was common. There could also be ritual warfare between rival tribes or groups. Anthropologists have now come to accept that violence is integral to our understanding of the remote human past.

Overy explains such human belligerence against its own species by the human tendency to divide people into us and them. We can think of “them” as sub-human or a demonic threat who is engaged in magic. In the much revered classical world, the ancient Greeks divided the world into Greek citizens and barbarians, while the Romans also divided the world into citizens and others. In social psychological terms, it seems natural to divide the world into us and them.

Overy was prompted to write his book by the correspondence between Freud and Einstein in 1932 where Einstein asked Freud the question, why war. Einstein thought there would be a simple answer in psychology. But Freud didn't have an answer.

Why war?

Overy explored a range of motives.

Access to resources is an obvious motive. All the way through historical time people have been envious of other people's resources or willing to fight in order to protect their own resources. In the 20th century there were the cases of Germany and Japan in the leadup to World War 2. Today, Donald Trump is obsessed with acquiring rare earths and critical minerals and is bullying countries in that quest, without yet declaring war.

Belief has always been very important. While religious belief is key, beliefs also extend to the political and social ideology of America during the Cold War.

Power. Some countries launch wars to enhance their power. Perhaps the most extreme cases would be Napoleon or Hitler or Putin with their thirst for power. In doing so, such leaders can be non-rational actors, motivated by hubris.

Finally, security is probably the most powerful motivator – especially vis-a-vis neighbours. According to Thomas Hobbes, the British philosopher in the 17th century, security is what we all want. The only way to get security is to protect yourself or to fight others. Uncertainty, mistrust or fear of other people can prompt you to violence to establish your own security.

Security is an extremely fragile concept. So we're constantly searching for security and the 21st century is a century where everybody is uncertain about the future. Everybody is thinking about their own security, and is busy rearming.

Both China and Russia have security concerns regarding their frontiers. China is anxious about its frontiers and wants to ensure that its frontiers meet its requirements. Russia is a declining power which is worried about encroachment of the West and its institutions and ideas.

Overy believes that the "Thucydides Trap" represents a very unlikely scenario for US/China relations. According to this theory there is a high likelihood of conflict when a rising power threatens to displace a ruling one, as popularized by Graham T. Allison in his book Destined for War.

As Overy argues, the two most recent power transitions occurred peacefully. There was a peaceful power transition from British to American hegemony in the 19th century, and the US/Soviet great power contest ended without conflict. Countries like the USA and China can resolve competition without war.

Indeed, neither of the world wars were instigated by clashes between a rising and a ruling power. And against that there are a number of instances of governments launching wars irrationally – like Germany’s declaration of war against the US during World War 2.

In sum, there can be multiple causes for war, explaining war is enormously complex. There are no simple answers.

Attraction of war

Overy remarks that in Europe in 1914 many young men thought war was going to be an exciting adventure, and many were looking forward to it in a horrible way, after something like a hundred years without a major European war.

When Germans elected Hitler in 1933, most did not want to wage a world war again. They had their fingers badly burnt in the first World War. But there was extraordinary enthusiasm for Hitler and when war came, Germans followed him to war.

Historically, the warrior elite, who are committed to protecting their community, became a dominant force in all societies, especially the Spartans, Vikings or the Aztecs. Today America’s Secretary of War even talks about the “warrior spirit”. And war is regularly glorified in the cinema, video games and other arts.

World War 2 offered Europe many harsh lessons, and ever since Europe has lived in a bubble of peace, while war has continued elsewhere. This bubble burst of course with Russia’s invasion of Ukraine, and there are fears of Russia now attacking one or more NATO member countries.

Looking ahead

According to Overy, human beings are a belligerent species. Moreover, they are a conscious species and engage in violence consciously. Indeed, wars require an extraordinary degree of organisation and cooperation, perhaps more than any other human activity.

Human beings continue to believe that war is a valid way to solve disputes, even if they can end tragically as highlighted by Putin’s invasion of Ukraine. So pessimistically, Overy believes that war will always be with us.

In today’s world, most wish for peace, and yet we can't sit down and make peace. Overy would like people to look at the history of war and agree that this is madness. And yet countries are now busy rearming because they believe that they will face threats in the future.

When we should be getting rid of nuclear weapons, here we still are in 2025 with people making rhetorical threats of nuclear warfare. The belligerent species is its own worst enemy!

Overy is sceptical about the role of collective security agreement like NATO. As we saw in World War 1, collective security agreements can lead to unexpected explosions of small problems, when a small dispute between Austria-Hungary and Serbia engulfed all of Europe in war. Further, neither the League of Nations nor the United Nations have been able to stop war.

There have been great efforts to elaborate international laws for war. But the two current wars, in Ukraine and Gaza, have demonstrated flagrant disregard for such laws, as there have been an extraordinary number of civilian deaths.

As evident from the Ukraine war, drones will likely play a major role in future wars. But the Ukraine and Gaza wars also show that traditional warfare will remain with us.

Looking ahead, cyberwar will grow in importance. And there is a great risk of war in space.